Conclusion

Based on the definition given by the jewellers Den Besten and Metcalf, this report will be outlining contemporary jewelelry as any form of jewelelry which is not limited just to conventional material, techniques nor physical attributes of that of commercial nor conventional jewellery.  Furthermore this report has deducted that there are various types and functions for contemporary jewelelry, but will however be more concentrated on the narrative types of jewellery as these are more relevant to this report. 

This report has chosen to define narrative works as any body of work under the arts umbrella which informs of a story, engages or address any subject matter using a specific art discipline. In the case of this report those would be jewellery and poetry, which both rely on creating a narrative using visual or spoken imagery. 

One of the main focal words to this report is the term of umakoti, which is a Nguni word with a deeper association to it than just bride. There are several concepts, rules and expectations which relate to this word and her role. Primarily that she will not simply be a bride to her husband, but a bride to the family in which she marries into. Based on all the relevant topics that fall under umakoti, this report would condense the meaning to a woman (ranging from the ages of 18 both below and above), who has entered a marriage both voluntarily or through force. Due to the customs associated with umakoti, there are many limitations which are found within this role, although these have been challenged over the years. 

However, this report has noted that not all families regard the role of umakoti as being that of one of lesser neither value nor standard; she is at times revered overtime as she gains status in age, or through proving her worth within her marital family. Even when marriage is entered into through force, they are cases in which she ends to happy within the marriage, this reports does not aim to chastise the role as a whole, but to reflect on some of the negative customs which some women have faced due to the customs

Miscarriages

The technical definition for miscarriage is when an embryo or fetus perishes before is exceeds the 20th week pregnancy. According to research around 10 -25% of pregnancies result in a miscarriage. (PPFA, 2019; Staff, 2019).  However, miscarriages like suicide have long been part of the "unspoken" issues which plague our communities, as though it were an illness which spread when it was spoken about.

Within society, even in the Xhosa communities, it was almost disgraceful for a woman to be unable to conceive and give birth to a healthy child. Due to lack of available information, women ended up being made to feel as though they were failures when found to be barren, as though she somehow failed at doing the one thing that her body was designed for. A real woman ought to be able to bring forth life, isn't she?

   Figure 1 Connie Brichford (2016) Female Anatomy. [ONLINE]

As seen in figure 1, the female anatomy unlike that of a man, is designed to conceive, carry and give birth to life (Brichford, 2016). 

Umakoti

Figure 1: Ndongeni, S. (2015) Umakoti clothing.

My cultural heritage is a mixture of Bhaca, Xhosa and Zulu; however I grew up identifying more with the Xhosa, as that is the side I was predominately exposed to, although I would be traditionally referred to as iBhaca. Having been raised in a family which did not practice traditional customs,  I would say that my understanding of many Xhosa traditions and cultural practices was minimal when I began with this report.

Through my personal journey of becoming umakoti and through the research, I have found that there are rules to be followed and even a specific hierarchy even among the brides within her new family. These are determined by many factors one of these being how long one has been married; thus giving umakoti that has been married longer superiority over a recently married umakoti., this is regardless of the wife’s age.

Although this research report is based on the bridal narrative, it will, however, be mainly addressing the plight of the Xhosa umakoti. As addressed in a later section, Christianity is the main religious denomination which has had an influence on the Xhosa culture and this report will, therefore, be outlining the Christian perspective of marriage rather than the more westernized or universal marriage concepts. For discussion purposes this report will be adopting the Xhosa and Christian perspective of a marriage union, those being heterosexual marriages, a marriage between man and woman (Goodacre,2007; Church, 2002).

For the umakoti who  practices and observes the Christianity,their bridal journey will involve the following:
a. Ukwenda/ Xhosa marriage customs
b.  Christian marriage customs.

This report will highlight the main concepts with regards to umakoti:

1. Labola/ bride price
2.    Ukuthwala-(bridal abduction)
3.   Child marriage
4. Ukuyala
5. Ukuhlonipha

Bridal journey/ tale

Although this research report is based on the bridal narrative, it will, however, be mainly addressing the plight of the Xhosa umakoti. As addressed in a later section, Christianity is the main religious denomination which has had an influence on the Xhosa culture and this report will, therefore, be outlining the Christian perspective of marriage rather than the more westernized or universal marriage concepts. For discussion purposes this report will be adopting the Xhosa and Christian perspective of a marriage union, those being heterosexual marriages, a marriage between man and woman (Goodacre,2007; Church, 2002).

For the umakoti who  practices and observes the Christianity,their bridal journey will involve the following:
a. Ukwenda/ Xhosa marriage customs
b.  Christian marriage customs.

Contemporary jewellery

When trying to formulate the definition for what this report believes contemporary jewellery is, this paper has looked at the definition given by two influential contemporary jewellers these being:

    Bruce Metcalf

Figure 1: Metcalf, B  (1997). Brooch pins, maple, copper, brass, sterling silver, 23k gold leaf. [ONLINE]

According to Metcalf, there is no fixed definition for jewellery in itself as it may gravitate between the extremes of both sculptural may yet be closely related to textile (Metcalf, 1998). In his paper he also highlights the main five functions of jewellery which he uses as a guide in order to discover his definition of what is contemporary jewellery. As seen in figure 1, an item if jewellery may have sculptural features and still be considered an item of jewellery.

b.      Liesbeth den Besten
According to art historian Liesbeth den Besten, contemporary jewellery is an item of jewellery which is reflective of that specific period  which it was created in, expanding to at least a 50 year period gap (Besten, 2001).

Introduction

This section will also be providing brief definitions of all relevant keywords.

Keywords: Contemporary, Narrative, Narrative jewellery, Xhosa beadwork, poetry, lobola, umakoti, child marriage, marriage, bride, bridal kidnapping/ ukhutwala.

Bruce `Metcalf

Figure Pin &140, 1997, maple, copper, brass, sterling silver, 23k gold leaf. [ONLINE]

According to Mecoth, there is no fixed definition for jewellery in itself as it may gravitate between the extremes of both sculptural may yet be closely related to textile (Metcalf, 1998). In his paper he also highlights the main five functions of jewellery which he uses as a guide in order to discover his definition of what is contemporary jewellery. 

Xhosa umakoti concepts explained

My cultural heritage is a mixture of Bhaca, Xhosa and Zulu; however I grew up identifying more with the Xhosa, as that is the side I was predominately exposed to, although I would be traditionally referred to as iBhaca. Having been raised in a family which did not practice traditional customs,  I would say that my understanding of many Xhosa traditions and cultural practices was minimal when I began with this report.

Through my personal journey of becoming umakoti and through the research, I have found that there are rules to be followed and even a specific hierarchy even among the brides within her new family. These are determined by many factors one of these being how long one has been married; thus giving umakoti that has been married longer superiority over a recently married umakoti., this is regardless of the wife’s age.

This report will highlight the main conceptses with regards to umakoti:

1. Ukuyala
2. Ukuhlonipha

Which Techniques has she used?

In her work, Stuntman predominantly ues techniques such as embroidery, weaving, crocheting and knitting, techniques which were traditionally used by women. She uses these specific techniques as juxtaposition tools in order express her views on women to the world.  

Figure 27, is an example of her work taken from the “Impaired Vision” series.

 Figure 27 Stutman, B. (1997) Sugar and Spice: Must we be Nice? Brooch. [ONLINE]^[1]

In this piece she has chosen to use both knitting and crocheting as her main techniques. With this series, she was attempting to depict how media does not give a true portrayal of women, but however uses devices in order to create insecurities within women in order to further thier own agendas. 

According to Rachel Felder, one of the authors of the online publication Good Housekeeping; red lipstick is "unique combination of boldness, strength, and self-assured sexiness". However these are all ideologies which have been placed into the human psyche through media through out history. 

She has skillfully used these techniques closely associated with women to almost ask "is this really what you want women to focus on?" With the aid of her material selection she was able to further emphasis judgement of media for their depiction of the women. 

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[1]Available at: http://www.barbarastutman.com/works/impaired.php 

Ukuhlonipha

The word ukuhlonipha means respect. Within the Xhosa culture respect is one of the most important things to show both towards others and to one’s culture. However for purposes of this report only some of the most crucial aspects of ukuhlonipha ka makoti will be addressed, such as the dress code, iqiya and eye contact.

• Dress code

The picture below on the right is of my grandmother who is wearing traditional mainly worn by older wives and women. Like the picture of the women on the left, the clothing still has the distinct Xhosa lines at the bottom, the middle panel and the black turban. As seen in the picture, she has covered he shoulders, as a sign of respect as she was attending an event. My aunt on the other hand is wearing a more contemporary take to the traditional outfit, since she is wearing a version of the turban.

Then	Now
Figure 1 CSIR. Traditional Xhosa dress	Figure 2 Bacela, V. Traditional Xhosa Dress

• Iqhiya

In the Xhosa culture, the turban is called Iqhiya and not merely as means decorate, but is worn as a sign of respect for towards their in-laws and their husband. (S, 2007). However, I personally believe that Christianity had its influence on this particular practice the same way it had in their dress code (Hodgson, 1997; Magubane, 1998).

Then	Now
Figure 3 Young Gcaleka wife (Costello, 1990)	Figure 4  Contemporary Xhosa Dress [ONLINE}[1]

With accordance to tradition, younger woman had to wear less elaborate headdresses, as the more elaborate headdress styles were reserved for older women due to their seniority. The above picture, is of a young married woman from the Gcaleka Xhosa tribe, as seen in the picture, her headdress is simpler.    

• Eye contact

With accordance to the Xhosa culture, a married woman is not allowed to make eye contact with other men, including her husband, at times even with older women within her new family as it is seen as a sign of disrespect (S, 2007).

Umakoti/ bride

Figure 18: Ndongeni, S. (2015) Umakoti clothing.

In many other Nguni groups, dress and accessories carried a narrative or visual symbolism for the wearer; though several of these have been lost due to modernization of the world. Nonetheless symbolism of dress and accessories still play an important role within the Xhosa culture especially when it comes to a marriage and being umakoti.

One of these is the headdress which is a symbol of respect towards both elders within the marital home and one’s husband (CSIR, 2018). Within each division of the tribes, various colours, clothing and beads hold various significances and when designing my final collection this will play vital role in the formation of my pieces (Magubane, vanishing cultures of south africa, 1998).

Xhosa marriage/ ukwenda

As stated by Magubane in his book  (Magubane, 2001), the Xhosa nation may be identified as being a spiritual people, a quality shared amongst many indigenous African cultures. Before the arrival of mission workers the Xhosa people acknowledged and worship God, whom they had denoted to as: “uDali, Mdali, uMenzi, uHlanga, iNkosi yezulu, Qamata, Thixo (Mtshiselwa,2011, p. 278). Xhosa beliefs blended into their everyday life, as they believe that their ancestors played a part in their everyday life as who are believed to be alive in the spirit world and could communicate and control what took place in this present life (Hodgson, 1997) (Magubane, 1998).

Figure 14

This belief system influences every stage of one’s life from conception until ones death when they are believed to be joined to their ancestors. This would thus influence marriage customs^[1], as a marriage in the Xhosa nation would not only signify the union of man and woman, or man and women; but would, however, involve the women being introduced and being received by the husbands’ ancestors. This, like most Xhosa traditional customs, would involve a slaughter of animals as a gift to the ancestors.

The sacrifices offered to ancestors make Xhosa ceremonies to be more than just a custom, but a religious ceremony to be taken seriously as the slaughter of animals to the ancestors is seen as a contract (Bredckamp, 1995).  Within the Xhosa culture there are many possible acceptable roads one may travel in order to attain a wife, some of which are the basis of discussion for this paper. Some of these practices are listed below:

•              Arranged marriages

•              Customary marriages

•              Lobola

•              Polygamy

•              Ukuthwala

In many ways, these marriage customs are a form of slavery or at least hold a close resemblance to slavery when placed under the light. As defined by the Oxford Dictionary:

 “a person who is owned by another person and is forced to work for them, a person who cannot make their own decisions.” (Turnbull, 2010).

Unfortunately this is a very accurate description of many of these young girls and women, as they are unable to escape these marriages nor are they allowed to have a say within their marriages, they are simply forced to endure every form of abusive treatment and play the dutiful wife.

Unlike traditional Xhosa marriages, marriage in Christianity ^[2]does not involve ancestors, but does however unify and consecrate two people before God, through Jesus Christ. (Ephesians) This is of great significance especially to Xhosa practicing Christians^[3] as it will affect their marriage ceremony and the way they enter a marriage covenant.

Xhosa marriage concepts explained

 This report will be discussing at the following Xhosa bridal marriage practices:

1. Labola/ bride price
2.    Ukuthwala-(bridal abduction)
3.   Child marriage

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Ukuthwala-(bridal abduction)

Figure 1 James, A. Bachelors stage a kidnapping.  [ONLINE]

The bridal practice of ukuthwala (bridal abduction), has formed part of many South African native cultural groups, and has still remained as a cultural marriage practice in several places within the Eastern Cape (Froko, S. M. 2016). As the Eastern Cape is predominately a Xhosa populated part of the country, the report will be exploring this practice through the Xhosa culture. There are not many positives when it comes to the practice of bridal kidnapping, therefore this report will instead introduce the historical justification for the practice.

1. Historical bases

It is believed that the practice of ukuthwala in South Africa originated with the Xhosa people (Mwambene & Sloth-nielsen, 2011). Initially the practice came about in cases when either the girl’s family or both families, would be against a marriage or would not come into agreement with labola, and then the couple would stage this abduction, in order to force their  families to allow the marriage to take place.

Although not inherently a form of an abusive abduction, it has mutated into a form of marriage which results in abuse, violence and in many unfortunate cases resulted in rape. Traditionally the practice may be conducted in one of two ways; there are cases where the girl’s family has consented to the marriage and the abduction of their daughter. In this case, the two families have met without consulting the girl in question and have even concluded with the lobola negotiations in most of these cases. Then the two families for whatever the reasons may  be agreed to a specific date on which this abduction would take place (Modisaotsile, 2013).

2. Negatives

In a paper written by Nomusa Mphanga (Maphanga, 2011), one of the drawbacks of the custom of ukuthwala was that men soon abducted the young girls as a result of a spiteful kind of love. The aim was no longer to preserve a custom, nor was it a sign of respect for either the young woman nor their families, it was all about breaking her virginity in order to force the family to permit the marriage.

The sad reality of our society is that a woman is judged more harshly than a man; to the extent that even in cases when she has been violated she is forced to either hide what has taken place or bare the stone of society. Until the recent events which have transpired in our country, it was easy to get away with rape. However now, women have had enough and have learned to voice out their frustration, nonetheless this was not always the case.

When the custom of ukuthwala began to become distorted, it forced the woman, the young girl to not just suffer the pain of rape, but to be sentenced to a life with her rapist all in the name of persevering the dignity he had stripped away from her (Maphanga, 2011; South African Abductions: young girls forced into marriage, n.d.).

The practice of ukuthwala has now become an illegal practice within South Africa and many countries throughout the world. There were cases where the man’s family are in agreement and have not met with either the young girl nor her family and simply decide to ambush her at their earliest convenience, to then inform the girl’s family once they have kidnapped her of what they have done.

 No matter what the circumstance is, when the girl is unaware of this sort of marriage, it may be traumatic for her, as she is taken against her will and then forced to become a wife to someone she may not even know, and at times a man who is 15 to 40 years her senior.

Biblical Headship

Many times men who tend to lord the verses of submission over their wives tend to disregard the verses in  Ephesians 5: 25-29. 

1. Positives

This scripture is a clear depiction of how the true Christian husband ought to behave towards his wife. If one is a true scholar of the word, he would never practice any form of abuse or inhuman form of dominance over his wife. Yeshua, had stated in various passages of the Bible that He came to serve the church rather than to be served by the church, even going as far as to wash the very feet of His disciples and then instructing them to behave in a like manner to those who would be under them (John 13). Through this act, He depicted a servanthood form of headship which is at times contrary to the leadership styles adopted by many men, especially Xhosa Christian husbands.

According to scripture, the biblical husband ought to focus on the desires and needs of his wife above that of his own; therefore although she ought to submit to him, she would be submitting to a man who seeks[1] her happiness above his own. 

This form of biblical headship [2]therefore goes beyond the selfish interpretation of men as dictators of the home, but speaks of a responsibility on the husband which thus would require the submission of the wife. It therefore displays how God has not simply placed women in a vulnerable passion by placing the man as the head of his household, but has however placed him as a head above her for her edification and so as to create order within the household, when applied in the manner it was designed in.

2. Negatives

As explained above, the concept of headship is not meant as a form of suppression; however due to the influence of Christianity on the Xhosa culture and within the Christian community, many unconverted men have used the concept as a means of control their wives (Cox, 2018).

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[1] Pastor Mike Bickle of “iHop Ministries” describes the way a Christian husband ought to see marriage as a lifelong stewardship in which he becomes God’s spokesman to his wife. Furthermore, he advises young man to understand that the marriage covenant is in no way related to how their emotions are towards their wives, meaning that they are not faithful to her because she is faithful, but behave towards her because it is their personal ministry to God.

[2] The husband would therefore be responsible for any failings within the marriage as the head, including the disrespect displayed by a hurt wife. This also goes to the issue of loving the wife, which a man is commanded to do along with honoring her, nurturing both her emotional and spiritual growth (Base, The Incredible Worth of a Woman, 2012).

Submission

1. Negative ideas about submission 


The various divisions of faiths which use The Old Testament Bible besides Christians; this is only a minor indication of the vast ideologies adopted from the Bible[1]. When it comes to the interpretation of scripture, there is much debate as to what should be considered the most accurate depiction of what is written; and at times people may intentionally manipulate scriptures to justify their deeds or to further their dark desires (Wuthnow, 1992).
The above scripture has been one of the most debated scriptures throughout history due to one simple reason “misinterpretation”. Dependent on the church denomination or person, this one scripture could be either oppressive or liberating. As it could be implying that the wife is either inferior to the man and that the man is infallible, therefore the wife ought to obey her husband regardless of his reasoning (Forest, 2014).
This false understanding of the scripture may cause many wives to resent [2]and reject scripture, characterizing it as a modern-day form of slavery that goes against the modern-day independent women mindset. This has also taken a dangerous turn where the hot-tempered husband finally has a biblical approval to control and dominate his wife as he pleases (White, 1998). This form of a submissive marriage [3] relationship is destructive for both the wife and the husband, for it gives the man the rod in which he has authority over another life to treat her as he wishes and needs not to fear consequence. It results in the wife feeling tormented, broken and seeing no point to life as she is forced to stay in such a marriage (GRADY, 2013).


2. Positives 


When it comes to biblical submission, it is not about being a servant, but rather about humbling one’s self under the leadership of the husband while giving him his due respect. (McRae, Marks of a Christian Marriage, 2000) It is not about a wife obeying the husband, but rather the wife allowing the husband to lead both her and the family, while at the same time honoring the biblical hierarchy established by God. Not at all to say that the wife has no right to correct the husband, but how she addresses him should be with respect rather than challenging him. This is so that they will be able to work together as a unit rather than be at odds with each other as though they are competitors. According to scripture, when taken into context, biblical submission is not meant to be a noose tied around the wife to fulfill the desires of the husband. It is however meant to bring about order and biblical structure within the marriage.
The other important thing to note is that submission is to “your own husband” and not every man nor his family. Although many families would require this of the wife; which is then an incorrect usage of the scripture, as this type of submission is not about degrading the woman, but about establishing husband and wife roles. This is evident ion the fact that the husband is told that he ought to cleave unto his wife and leave his parents; therefore this shows that their relationship should take precedence in his life and that his family ought to respect that. Beyond that they are said to have become one flesh, meaning that the world and their families ought to view them as one person, this would thus mean that the respected they afford their son ought to be the same respect they give his wife. This once again expresses that scripture intended for submission to be a crown for the woman rather than a thorn.

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[1] KJV stands for: The King James Version.

  

Christian marriage customs

With the introduction of Christianity into the lives of the Xhosa people came the confusion as to what would be regarded as an authentic marriage union; as Christianity came with its preexistent marriage customs that were different from those practiced within the Xhosa culture. The section below will hence discuss the Christian marriage customs that affect or influence the Xhosa Christian marriage.

1. 1. Positives
   
   
   One of the prerequisites by the church for those who intend on having a Christian church wedding is the couple is obligated to undergo premarital counseling. This is usually a series of sessions with the couple and is usually conducted by the pastor and/or his wife. The main purpose behind these sessions is to assess the couple’s compatibility, to prepare them for marriage, while also establishing what the couple has in mind for their wedding day, thus helping design a personalized marriage ceremony (Church, 2002; Debbie Budlender, 2002; Marshall, 1969).
   2. Negatives

The procedures found within Christianity may at times prove to be a challenge for the professing Xhosa Christians [1]as they would be required to perform a church wedding executed by a priest, as some churches do not approve of customary and civil marriages (Church, 2002). Some churches believed that for a Christian marriage to be regarded as legit in the eyes of God, it had to be conducted within a church, as it is sacred and God’s dwelling place (Bredckamp, 1995). 

Although biblically incorrect, these manmade Christian doctrines and church laws do however influence the mindsets of the Christian community and by default those who get married through this system. Studies show that 53% of the church communities irrespective of their church attendance regard church weddings as more “proper” (Goodacre, 2007). This would, therefore, be a decisive factor for any Christian especially those who esteem their Christian faith to a high degree, as it would be their symbol of submitting to their God, even if they are not required to (Marshall, 1969, p. 23; McCarthy, 2002).

Taking the above into account, the Xhosa Christian Xhosa couple would then find themselves having to conduct two marriage ceremonies, once which is according to the Christian faith and another which is according to their tradition, as neither the Xhosa tradition requires for their union to be confirmed in the eyes of the ancestors with according with their customs. This then proves to be a problem if only the wife is the Christian as she is then forced to compromise her faith to accommodate her in-laws.